Contributions to the washboard effect evaluation on unpaved roads
Washboard or corrugation is a common phenomenon on unpaved roads, characterized by undulating patterns that not only cause discomfort to drivers but also pose safety risks due to the loss of wheel-road contact. This study integrates experimental, theoretical, and real-scale measurement approaches to...
- Autores:
-
Ibagón Carvajal, Laura Marcela
- Tipo de recurso:
- Doctoral thesis
- Fecha de publicación:
- 2025
- Institución:
- Universidad de los Andes
- Repositorio:
- Séneca: repositorio Uniandes
- Idioma:
- eng
- OAI Identifier:
- oai:repositorio.uniandes.edu.co:1992/76268
- Acceso en línea:
- https://hdl.handle.net/1992/76268
- Palabra clave:
- Washboard effect
Soil wheel interaction
Corrugation
Critical velocity
Soil undulations
Soil forces
Particle transport
Unpaved roads
Soil reinforcement
Geocells
Ingeniería
- Rights
- openAccess
- License
- https://repositorio.uniandes.edu.co/static/pdf/aceptacion_uso_es.pdf
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Contributions to the washboard effect evaluation on unpaved roads |
| title |
Contributions to the washboard effect evaluation on unpaved roads |
| spellingShingle |
Contributions to the washboard effect evaluation on unpaved roads Washboard effect Soil wheel interaction Corrugation Critical velocity Soil undulations Soil forces Particle transport Unpaved roads Soil reinforcement Geocells Ingeniería |
| title_short |
Contributions to the washboard effect evaluation on unpaved roads |
| title_full |
Contributions to the washboard effect evaluation on unpaved roads |
| title_fullStr |
Contributions to the washboard effect evaluation on unpaved roads |
| title_full_unstemmed |
Contributions to the washboard effect evaluation on unpaved roads |
| title_sort |
Contributions to the washboard effect evaluation on unpaved roads |
| dc.creator.fl_str_mv |
Ibagón Carvajal, Laura Marcela |
| dc.contributor.advisor.none.fl_str_mv |
Caicedo Hormaza, Bernardo |
| dc.contributor.author.none.fl_str_mv |
Ibagón Carvajal, Laura Marcela |
| dc.contributor.jury.none.fl_str_mv |
Medero, Gabriela López-Caballero, Fernando Estrada Mejía, Nicolás |
| dc.contributor.researchgroup.none.fl_str_mv |
Facultad de Ingeniería::Grupo De Investigación En Geomateriales Y Sistema De Infraestructura |
| dc.subject.keyword.eng.fl_str_mv |
Washboard effect Soil wheel interaction Corrugation Critical velocity Soil undulations Soil forces Particle transport Unpaved roads Soil reinforcement Geocells |
| topic |
Washboard effect Soil wheel interaction Corrugation Critical velocity Soil undulations Soil forces Particle transport Unpaved roads Soil reinforcement Geocells Ingeniería |
| dc.subject.themes.spa.fl_str_mv |
Ingeniería |
| description |
Washboard or corrugation is a common phenomenon on unpaved roads, characterized by undulating patterns that not only cause discomfort to drivers but also pose safety risks due to the loss of wheel-road contact. This study integrates experimental, theoretical, and real-scale measurement approaches to provide some understanding of the washboard phenomenon. Experimentally, the research evaluated key physical variables controlling washboard development using a multi-pass system in which a rotating wheel traverses a sandy path. Variables such as wheel velocity, wheel mass, and soil properties were examined to assess their influence on undulation formation. Theoretically, a model was developed to compute soil permanent displacements and contact forces by incorporating a simple rheological model, dynamic equilibrium principles, soil-bearing capacity, and macro-element models based on a conical stress distribution. Additionally, the washboard phenomenon was analyzed through particle transport dynamics, by applying a theoretical model previously proposed for sand dune formation. This approach evaluates ripple development via saltation and creep processes under variable wheel velocities and soil densities. Furthermore, the study examines the effectiveness of geosynthetic reinforcement at the road surface by evaluating a cellular confinement system (geocells). The use of geocells was found to enhance soil shear resistance and reduce undulation formation, as demonstrated by comparative experiments on reinforced and non-reinforced tracks. Finally, real-scale measurements from four Ecuadorian unpaved roads were analyzed to assess vehicle behavior at varying speeds. Overall, the findings provide some insights into the driving mechanisms of washboard development and show that vehicle velocity is a critical factor. Additionally, a feasible mitigation strategy is proposed, which may contribute to improved road performance and safety. |
| publishDate |
2025 |
| dc.date.accessioned.none.fl_str_mv |
2025-06-10T18:33:48Z |
| dc.date.available.none.fl_str_mv |
2025-06-10T18:33:48Z |
| dc.date.issued.none.fl_str_mv |
2025-05-26 |
| dc.type.none.fl_str_mv |
Trabajo de grado - Doctorado |
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info:eu-repo/semantics/doctoralThesis |
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https://hdl.handle.net/1992/76268 |
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instname:Universidad de los Andes |
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reponame:Repositorio Institucional Séneca |
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| dc.language.iso.none.fl_str_mv |
eng |
| language |
eng |
| dc.relation.references.none.fl_str_mv |
Osama Abu Daoud and Khaled Ksaibati. Studying the effect of gravel roads geometric features on corrugation behavior. International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology, pages 1–9, 2021. Osama Abu Daoud, Omar Albatayneh, Lars Forslof, and Khaled Ksaibati. Validating the practicality of utilising an image classifier developed using tensorflow framework in collecting corrugation data from gravel roads. International Journal of Pavement Engineering, 23(11):3797–3808, 2022. Ahmed JR Al-Heety, Mohammed Hassouneh, and Fathi M Abdullah. Application of masw and ert methods for geotechnical site characterization: A case study for roads construction and infrastructure assessment in abu dhabi, uae. Journal of Applied Geophysics, 193:104408, 2021. Ahmad Alhasan, David J White, and Kris De Brabanter. Quantifying roughness of unpaved roads by terrestrial laser scanning. Transportation Research Record, 2523(1):105–114, 2015. ASTM. Astm d854: Standard test methods for specific gravity of soil solids by water pycnometer. ASTM International, 04, 2002. ASTM. Astm d3080: Standard test method for direct shear test of soils under consolidated drained conditions. ASTM International, 2011. ASTM. D6913: Standard test methods for particle-size distribution (gradation) of soils using sieve analysis. ASTM International, D6913, 2017. ASTM. Astm d4595-17: Standard test method for tensile properties of geotextiles by the wide-width strip method. ASTM International, 2017. ASTM. Astm d5035-11 (2019). standard test method for breaking force and elongation of textile fabrics (strip method). ASTM International, 2019. ASTM International. Standard Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil Using Modified Effort (56,000 ft-lbf/ft³ (2,700 kN-m/m³)), 2021. URL https://www.astm.org/d1557-12r21.html. Developed by Subcommittee: D18.03, Last Updated: Jul 05, 2021. Sayanti Banerjee, Bappaditya Manna, and JT Shahu. Geocell as a promising reinforcement technique for road pavement: a state of the art. Indian Geotechnical Journal, 54(4):1644–1665, 2024. Richard J Bathurst and Rajagopal Karpurapu. Large-scale triaxial compression testing of geoceii-reinforced granular soils. Geotechnical testing journal, pages 296–303, 1993. Anne-Florence Bitbol, Nicolas Taberlet, Stephen W Morris, and Jim N McElwaine. Scaling and dynamics of washboard roads. Physical Review E, 79(6): 061308, 2009. Joseph A Both, Daniel C Hong, and Douglas A Kurtze. Corrugation of roads. Physica A: statistical mechanics and its applications, 301(1-4):545–559, 2001. Edgar Buckingham. On physically similar systems; illustrations of the use of dimensional equations. Physical review, 4(4):345, 1914. Miguel Angel Cabrera, Bernardo Caicedo, and Luc Thorel. Dynamic actuator for centrifuge modeling of soil-structure interaction. Geotechnical Testing Journal, 35(4):539–547, 2012. Bernardo Caicedo. Geotechnics of roads: fundamentals. CRC Press, 2018. Bernardo Caicedo and Gregoire Aguettant. Physical modeling of the washboard effect on unpaved roads. In Advances in Transportation Geotechnics IV: Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Transportation Geotechnics Volume 1, pages 243–251. Springer, 2022. Bernardo Caicedo, D Gómez, GA Arango, and ME Riascos. Physical and numerical modelling of a geocell gravity retaining wall. Physica A: Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Geosynthetics, 10ICG, Berlin, Germany, pages 225–231, 2014. A Cancelli, P Rimoldi, and F Montanelli. Index and performance tests for geocells in different applications. In Geosynthetic Soil Reinforcement Testing Procedures. ASTM International, 1993. RH Chen and YM Chiu. Model tests of geocell retaining structures. Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 26(1):56–70, 2008. Rong-Her Chen, Yu-Wen Huang, and Feng-Chi Huang. Confinement effect of geocells on sand samples under triaxial compression. Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 37:35–44, 2013. Christophe Clanet, Fabien Hersen, and Lydéric Bocquet. Secrets of successful stone-skipping. Nature, 427(6969):29–29, 2004. Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE). Cope position statement: Authorship and ai tools, 2023. URL https://publicationethics.org/guidance/ cope-position/authorship-and-ai-tools. Accessed: 2025-06-10. Ronald U Cooke, Andrew Warren, and Andrew S Goudie. Desert geomorphology. CRC Press, 1993. Vaughan Cornish. On the formation of sand-dunes. The Geographical Journal, 9 (3):278–302, 1897. Tiago Moy da Silva and Américo T Bernardes. Ripples and grains segregation on unpaved road. International Journal of Modern Physics C, 29(12):1850120, 2018. Sarper Demirdö˘gen, Ayhan Gürbüz, and Kaan Yünkül. 3d-printed geocells in footing systems: A comprehensive physical and numerical studies on scaling and performance under centric and eccentric loading scenarios. Transportation Geotechnics, 45:101214, 2024. Lin Xu Feng, JO Avesani Neto, and Jorge Gabriel Zornberg. Evaluation of the elastic modulus improvement in geocell-reinforced unbound aggregates: Fullscale experimental sections on a highway. Transportation Geotechnics, 49:101444, 2024. RB Furry. Simulation of the road-corrugation phenomenon. Highw Res Record, 438:54, 1973. A Hegde and TG Sitharam. Experimental and numerical studies on footings supported on geocell reinforced sand and clay beds. International Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 7(4):346–354, 2013. IJ Hewitt, NJ Balmforth, and JN McElwaine. Granular and fluid washboards. Journal of fluid mechanics, 692:446–463, 2012. Laura Ibagón, Bernardo Caicedo, Juan P Villacreses, and Fabricio Yépez. Modelling of washboard effect on unpaved roads experimental evidence on noncohesive materials. Transportation Geotechnics, 41:101015, 2023. Laura Ibagón, Bernardo Caicedo, Juan P Villacreses, and Álvaro Achury- Florian. Theoretical modelling of the washboard phenomenon on unpaved roads. Transportation Geotechnics, page 101484, 2025. Laura Ibagón, Bernardo Caicedo, Juan P. Villacreses, and Fernando López- Caballero. Mitigating washboard effect: A study on geocells as soil reinforcement for unpaved roads. Geotextiles and Geomembranes (under revision), 2025. International Monetary Fund. Latin america and the caribbean: Large gaps in infrastructure, 2016. URL https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2016/ wp16185.pdf. Accessed: 2024-04-20. J. Kennedy and R. Eberhart. Particle swarm optimization. In Proceedings of ICNN’95 - International Conference on Neural Networks, volume 4, pages 1942– 1948. IEEE, 1995. doi: 10.1109/ICNN.1995.488968. A. Lensen, M. Miranda, E. Álvarez, and Contributors. Pyswarms: A python-based framework for particle swarm optimization. https://pyswarms. readthedocs.io/, 2017. Accessed: 2024-04-11. Hesham Mahgoub, Christina Bennett, and Ali Selim. Analysis of factors causing corrugation of gravel roads. Transportation research record, 2204(1):3–10, 2011. KH Mamatha and SV Dinesh. Performance evaluation of geocell-reinforced pavements. International Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 13(3):277–286, 2019. Keith B Mather. Why do roads corrugate? Scientific American, 208(1):128–137, 1963. Chiharu Matsuyama, Yukihiro Tanaka, Motohiro Sato, and Hiroyuki Shima. Corrugation of an unpaved road surface under vehicle weight. Proceedings of the Royal Society A, 476(2241):20200323, 2020. David C Mays and Boris A Faybishenko. Washboards in unpaved highways as a complex dynamic system. Complexity, 5(6):51–60, 2000. L. J. Miranda. PySwarms: a research toolkit for Particle Swarm Optimization in Python. Journal of Open Source Software, 3(21):433, 2018. doi: 10.21105/joss. 00433. URL https://doi.org/10.21105/joss.00433. Hajime Naruse. cellbedform: Cellular automaton model for simulating bedform dynamics. https://github.com/narusehajime/cellbedform, 2018. GitHub repository. Hiraku Nishimori and Noriyuki Ouchi. Formation of ripple patterns and dunes by wind-blown sand. Physical Review Letters, 71(1):197, 1993. Baptiste Percier, Sebastien Manneville, Jim N McElwaine, Stephen W Morris, and Nicolas Taberlet. Lift and drag forces on an inclined plow moving over a granular surface. Physical Review E, 84(5):051302, 2011. Baptiste Percier, Sébastien Manneville, and Nicolas Taberlet. Modeling a washboard road: From experimental measurements to linear stability analysis. Physical Review E, 87(1):012203, 2013. Pixabay. Desert sand dunes nature texas [photograph], 2022. URL https: //pixabay.com/photos/desert-sand-dunes-nature-texas-7056210/. Retrieved January 24, 2025. Geo Globe Polska. (2017). Geocells technical data sheet. Retrieved from https://www.geomaxx.es/aplicaciones-de-las-geoceldas-geomaxx/ficha-t%C3%A9cnica-geoceldas/. Kenneth Pye and Haim Tsoar. Aeolian sand and sand dunes. Springer Science & Business Media, 2008. K Rajagopal, NR Krishnaswamy, and G Madhavi Latha. Behaviour of sand confined with single and multiple geocells. Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 17(3): 171–184, 1999. FE Relton. Corrugations on roads. Roads and Road Construction, 16(190):340– 342, 1938. Lionel Rosellini, Fabien Hersen, Christophe Clanet, and Lyderic Bocquet. Skipping stones. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 543:137–146, 2005. Nayan Jyoti Sarma and Arindam Dey. Finite element-based design and analysis of unpaved roads over difficult subsoil: Sustainable application of geotextile reinforcement to attain long-term performance. Indian Geotechnical Journal, pages 1–28, 2024. S Shoop, R Haehnel, V Janoo, D Harjes, and R Liston. Seasonal deterioration of unsurfaced roads. 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Feasibility of the use of nonlinear solitary waves for the nondestructive measurement of young’s modulus of rocks and compacted materials. Transportation Geotechnics, 26:100437, 2021. D. Wang, D. Tan, and L. Liu. Particle swarm optimization algorithm: an overview. Soft Computing, 22(2):387–408, 2018. doi: 10.1007/s00500-016-2474-6. John P Wolf. Foundation vibration analysis using simple physical models. Pearson Education, 1994. Jonathan TH Wu. Geosynthetic reinforced soil (GRS) walls. John Wiley & Sons, 2019. X Yang and J Han. Geocell-reinforced granular fill under static and cyclical loading: a synthesis of analysis. Geotechnical Engineering Journal of the SEAGS & AGSSEA, 44(4), 2013. Xiaoming Yang, Jie Han, Sanat K Pokharel, Chandra Manandhar, Robert L Parsons, Dov Leshchinsky, and Izhar Halahmi. Accelerated pavement testing of unpaved roads with geocell-reinforced sand bases. Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 32:95 103, 2012. Zen Yang. Strength and deformation characteristics of reinforced sand. University of California, Los Angeles, 1972. Huiwen Zhang, ZhenWu, Jing Hu, Zhiping Zhang, Bin Xiao, and Jianping Ma. Numerical simulation of wind field and sand flux in crescentic sand dunes. Scientific Reports, 11(1):4973, 2021. R. Zhang, T. Kawamura, and M. Kan. Numerical simulation of formation and movement of various sand dunes. In New Developments in Computational Fluid Dynamics: Proceedings of the Sixth International Nobeyama Workshop on the New Century of Computational Fluid Dynamics, Nobeyama, Japan, April 21 to 24, 2003, pages 165–174. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2005. |
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Caicedo Hormaza, Bernardovirtual::24163-1Ibagón Carvajal, Laura MarcelaMedero, GabrielaLópez-Caballero, FernandoEstrada Mejía, NicolásFacultad de Ingeniería::Grupo De Investigación En Geomateriales Y Sistema De Infraestructura2025-06-10T18:33:48Z2025-06-10T18:33:48Z2025-05-26https://hdl.handle.net/1992/76268instname:Universidad de los Andesreponame:Repositorio Institucional Sénecarepourl:https://repositorio.uniandes.edu.co/Washboard or corrugation is a common phenomenon on unpaved roads, characterized by undulating patterns that not only cause discomfort to drivers but also pose safety risks due to the loss of wheel-road contact. This study integrates experimental, theoretical, and real-scale measurement approaches to provide some understanding of the washboard phenomenon. Experimentally, the research evaluated key physical variables controlling washboard development using a multi-pass system in which a rotating wheel traverses a sandy path. Variables such as wheel velocity, wheel mass, and soil properties were examined to assess their influence on undulation formation. Theoretically, a model was developed to compute soil permanent displacements and contact forces by incorporating a simple rheological model, dynamic equilibrium principles, soil-bearing capacity, and macro-element models based on a conical stress distribution. Additionally, the washboard phenomenon was analyzed through particle transport dynamics, by applying a theoretical model previously proposed for sand dune formation. This approach evaluates ripple development via saltation and creep processes under variable wheel velocities and soil densities. Furthermore, the study examines the effectiveness of geosynthetic reinforcement at the road surface by evaluating a cellular confinement system (geocells). The use of geocells was found to enhance soil shear resistance and reduce undulation formation, as demonstrated by comparative experiments on reinforced and non-reinforced tracks. Finally, real-scale measurements from four Ecuadorian unpaved roads were analyzed to assess vehicle behavior at varying speeds. Overall, the findings provide some insights into the driving mechanisms of washboard development and show that vehicle velocity is a critical factor. Additionally, a feasible mitigation strategy is proposed, which may contribute to improved road performance and safety.Doctorado173 páginasapplication/pdfengUniversidad de los AndesDoctorado en IngenieríaFacultad de IngenieríaDepartamento de Ingeniería Civil y Ambientalhttps://repositorio.uniandes.edu.co/static/pdf/aceptacion_uso_es.pdfinfo:eu-repo/semantics/openAccesshttp://purl.org/coar/access_right/c_abf2Contributions to the washboard effect evaluation on unpaved roadsTrabajo de grado - Doctoradoinfo:eu-repo/semantics/doctoralThesisinfo:eu-repo/semantics/acceptedVersionhttp://purl.org/coar/resource_type/c_db06Texthttps://purl.org/redcol/resource_type/TDWashboard effectSoil wheel interactionCorrugationCritical velocitySoil undulationsSoil forcesParticle transportUnpaved roadsSoil reinforcementGeocellsIngenieríaOsama Abu Daoud and Khaled Ksaibati. Studying the effect of gravel roads geometric features on corrugation behavior. International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology, pages 1–9, 2021.Osama Abu Daoud, Omar Albatayneh, Lars Forslof, and Khaled Ksaibati. Validating the practicality of utilising an image classifier developed using tensorflow framework in collecting corrugation data from gravel roads. International Journal of Pavement Engineering, 23(11):3797–3808, 2022.Ahmed JR Al-Heety, Mohammed Hassouneh, and Fathi M Abdullah. Application of masw and ert methods for geotechnical site characterization: A case study for roads construction and infrastructure assessment in abu dhabi, uae. Journal of Applied Geophysics, 193:104408, 2021.Ahmad Alhasan, David J White, and Kris De Brabanter. Quantifying roughness of unpaved roads by terrestrial laser scanning. Transportation Research Record, 2523(1):105–114, 2015.ASTM. Astm d854: Standard test methods for specific gravity of soil solids by water pycnometer. ASTM International, 04, 2002.ASTM. Astm d3080: Standard test method for direct shear test of soils under consolidated drained conditions. ASTM International, 2011.ASTM. D6913: Standard test methods for particle-size distribution (gradation) of soils using sieve analysis. ASTM International, D6913, 2017.ASTM. Astm d4595-17: Standard test method for tensile properties of geotextiles by the wide-width strip method. ASTM International, 2017.ASTM. Astm d5035-11 (2019). standard test method for breaking force and elongation of textile fabrics (strip method). ASTM International, 2019.ASTM International. Standard Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil Using Modified Effort (56,000 ft-lbf/ft³ (2,700 kN-m/m³)), 2021. URL https://www.astm.org/d1557-12r21.html. Developed by Subcommittee: D18.03, Last Updated: Jul 05, 2021.Sayanti Banerjee, Bappaditya Manna, and JT Shahu. Geocell as a promising reinforcement technique for road pavement: a state of the art. Indian Geotechnical Journal, 54(4):1644–1665, 2024.Richard J Bathurst and Rajagopal Karpurapu. Large-scale triaxial compression testing of geoceii-reinforced granular soils. Geotechnical testing journal, pages 296–303, 1993.Anne-Florence Bitbol, Nicolas Taberlet, Stephen W Morris, and Jim N McElwaine. Scaling and dynamics of washboard roads. Physical Review E, 79(6): 061308, 2009.Joseph A Both, Daniel C Hong, and Douglas A Kurtze. Corrugation of roads. Physica A: statistical mechanics and its applications, 301(1-4):545–559, 2001.Edgar Buckingham. On physically similar systems; illustrations of the use of dimensional equations. Physical review, 4(4):345, 1914.Miguel Angel Cabrera, Bernardo Caicedo, and Luc Thorel. Dynamic actuator for centrifuge modeling of soil-structure interaction. Geotechnical Testing Journal, 35(4):539–547, 2012.Bernardo Caicedo. Geotechnics of roads: fundamentals. CRC Press, 2018.Bernardo Caicedo and Gregoire Aguettant. Physical modeling of the washboard effect on unpaved roads. In Advances in Transportation Geotechnics IV: Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Transportation Geotechnics Volume 1, pages 243–251. Springer, 2022.Bernardo Caicedo, D Gómez, GA Arango, and ME Riascos. Physical and numerical modelling of a geocell gravity retaining wall. Physica A: Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Geosynthetics, 10ICG, Berlin, Germany, pages 225–231, 2014.A Cancelli, P Rimoldi, and F Montanelli. Index and performance tests for geocells in different applications. In Geosynthetic Soil Reinforcement Testing Procedures. ASTM International, 1993.RH Chen and YM Chiu. Model tests of geocell retaining structures. Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 26(1):56–70, 2008.Rong-Her Chen, Yu-Wen Huang, and Feng-Chi Huang. Confinement effect of geocells on sand samples under triaxial compression. Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 37:35–44, 2013.Christophe Clanet, Fabien Hersen, and Lydéric Bocquet. 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