Sex difference in choice of concealed or exposed refuge sites by preschool children viewing a model leopard in a playground simulation of antipredator behavior

The current study of preschool children characterizes a semi-natural extension of experimental questions on how human ancestors evaded predation when encountering dangerous felids.  In a pretend game on a playground, we presented full-size leopard and deer models to children (N = 39) in a repeated-m...

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Autores:
Coss, Richard G.
Tipo de recurso:
Article of journal
Fecha de publicación:
2016
Institución:
Universidad de San Buenaventura
Repositorio:
Repositorio USB
Idioma:
eng
OAI Identifier:
oai:bibliotecadigital.usb.edu.co:10819/25780
Acceso en línea:
https://hdl.handle.net/10819/25780
https://doi.org/10.21500/20112084.2325
Palabra clave:
preschool children
antipredator simulation
leopard recognition
refuge choice
antipredator behavior
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openAccess
License
International Journal of Psychological Research - 2016
id SANBUENAV2_c3ef49e63773da304ea9c2f1b1d3d0bc
oai_identifier_str oai:bibliotecadigital.usb.edu.co:10819/25780
network_acronym_str SANBUENAV2
network_name_str Repositorio USB
repository_id_str
dc.title.spa.fl_str_mv Sex difference in choice of concealed or exposed refuge sites by preschool children viewing a model leopard in a playground simulation of antipredator behavior
dc.title.translated.spa.fl_str_mv Sex difference in choice of concealed or exposed refuge sites by preschool children viewing a model leopard in a playground simulation of antipredator behavior
title Sex difference in choice of concealed or exposed refuge sites by preschool children viewing a model leopard in a playground simulation of antipredator behavior
spellingShingle Sex difference in choice of concealed or exposed refuge sites by preschool children viewing a model leopard in a playground simulation of antipredator behavior
preschool children
antipredator simulation
leopard recognition
refuge choice
antipredator behavior
title_short Sex difference in choice of concealed or exposed refuge sites by preschool children viewing a model leopard in a playground simulation of antipredator behavior
title_full Sex difference in choice of concealed or exposed refuge sites by preschool children viewing a model leopard in a playground simulation of antipredator behavior
title_fullStr Sex difference in choice of concealed or exposed refuge sites by preschool children viewing a model leopard in a playground simulation of antipredator behavior
title_full_unstemmed Sex difference in choice of concealed or exposed refuge sites by preschool children viewing a model leopard in a playground simulation of antipredator behavior
title_sort Sex difference in choice of concealed or exposed refuge sites by preschool children viewing a model leopard in a playground simulation of antipredator behavior
dc.creator.fl_str_mv Coss, Richard G.
dc.contributor.author.eng.fl_str_mv Coss, Richard G.
dc.subject.eng.fl_str_mv preschool children
antipredator simulation
leopard recognition
refuge choice
antipredator behavior
topic preschool children
antipredator simulation
leopard recognition
refuge choice
antipredator behavior
description The current study of preschool children characterizes a semi-natural extension of experimental questions on how human ancestors evaded predation when encountering dangerous felids.  In a pretend game on a playground, we presented full-size leopard and deer models to children (N = 39) in a repeated-measures experimental design.  Prior to viewing the model presented 15-m away, each child was instructed by the experimenter to go where she or he would feel safe.  The rationale for this study was based on the anthropological construct of “sexual dinichism,” positing that, during the Pliocene, smaller-bodied hominin females engaged in more arboreal behavior than larger-bodied males. Consistent with this construct, our previous simulation research using images of an African rock outcrop showed that, after viewing a lion, girls preferred a tree as refuge rather than a crevice or large boulder whereas boys did not differentiate these refuge sites.  In this follow-up study, we predicted that, after viewing the model leopard, the preschool girls would differ from the boys by not choosing enclosed refuge sites analogous to the crevice.  Analyses of a contingency table for the leopard model supported this hypothesis by yielding a significant interaction of sex and refuge location (p = .031, d = .76), the source of which was a reliably larger percentage of girls not choosing concealed refuge (p = .005, d = 2.3).  The interaction of sex and refuge location for the model deer was not significant (p > .5).  Our findings suggest that, in contrast to the deer, the girls selected exposed playground refuge sites rather than concealing ones to maintain visual contact with the leopard as a contingency for future action.
publishDate 2016
dc.date.accessioned.none.fl_str_mv 2016-07-01T00:00:00Z
2025-07-31T16:11:50Z
dc.date.available.none.fl_str_mv 2016-07-01T00:00:00Z
2025-07-31T16:11:50Z
dc.date.issued.none.fl_str_mv 2016-07-01
dc.type.spa.fl_str_mv Artículo de revista
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dc.identifier.doi.none.fl_str_mv 10.21500/20112084.2325
dc.identifier.eissn.none.fl_str_mv 2011-7922
dc.identifier.issn.none.fl_str_mv 2011-2084
dc.identifier.uri.none.fl_str_mv https://hdl.handle.net/10819/25780
dc.identifier.url.none.fl_str_mv https://doi.org/10.21500/20112084.2325
identifier_str_mv 10.21500/20112084.2325
2011-7922
2011-2084
url https://hdl.handle.net/10819/25780
https://doi.org/10.21500/20112084.2325
dc.language.iso.eng.fl_str_mv eng
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https://revistas.usb.edu.co/index.php/IJPR/article/download/2325/3048
dc.relation.citationedition.eng.fl_str_mv Núm. 2 , Año 2016 : Special Issue of Comparative Psychology
dc.relation.citationendpage.none.fl_str_mv 19
dc.relation.citationissue.eng.fl_str_mv 2
dc.relation.citationstartpage.none.fl_str_mv 8
dc.relation.citationvolume.eng.fl_str_mv 9
dc.relation.ispartofjournal.eng.fl_str_mv International Journal of Psychological Research
dc.relation.references.eng.fl_str_mv Agresti, A. (2002). Categorical data analysis. Second Edition. New York: Wiley. Barrett, H. C. (2005). Adaptations to predators and prey. In D. Buss (Ed.), The handbook of evolutionary psychology (200–223). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Black, J. E., & Greenough, W. T. (1986). Induction of pattern in neural structure by experience: implications for cognitive development (1–50). In M. E. Lamb, A. L., Brown & B. Rogoff B (Eds.) Advances in developmental psychology, Vol 4. New Jersey: ErlbaumHillsdale. Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss. Vol. 1. Attachment. Second edition. New York: Basic Books. Brain, C. K. (1970). New finds at the Swartkrans australopithecine site. Nature (London), 225, 1112–1119. Busse, C. (1980). Leopard and lion predation upon chacma baboons living in the Moremi Wildlife Reserve. Botswana Notes & Records, 12, 15–21. Caro, T. M. (1986). The functions of stotting in Thomson’s gazelles: Some tests of the predictions. Animal Behaviour, 34, 663–684. Cosco, N. G., Moore, R. C., & Islam, M. Z.. (2010). Behavior mapping: A method for linking preschool physical activity and outdoor design. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 42, 513-519. Coss, R. G. (1991a). Context and animal behavior: 3. The relationship between early development and evolutionary persistence of ground squirrel antisnake behavior. Ecological Psychology, 3, 277–315. Coss, R. G. (1991b). Evolutionary persistence of memory-like processes. Concepts in Neuroscience, 2, 129–168. Coss, R. G., & Charles, E. P. (2004). The role of evolutionary hypotheses in psychological research: Instincts, affordances, and relic sex differences. Ecological Psychology, 16, 199-236. Coss, R. G., Fitzhugh, E. L., Schmid-Holmes, S., Kenyon, M. W., & Etling, K. (2009). The effects of human age, group composition, and behavior on the likelihood of being injured by attacking pumas. Anthrozoös, 22, 77-87. Coss, R. G., & Goldthwaite, R. O. (1995). The persistence of old designs for perception. In N. S. Thompson (Ed.), Perspectives in ethology, Vol. 11. Behavioral design (83–148). New York: Plenum. Coss, R. G., & Ramakrishnan, U. (2000). Perceptual aspects of leopard recognition by wild bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata). Behaviour, 137, 315–335. Dabbs, J. M. Jr., Chang, E-L., Strong, R. A., & Milun, R. (1998). Spatial ability, navigation strategy, and geographic knowledge among men and women. Evolution and Human Behavior, 19, 89–98. Doran, D. M. (1993). Sex differences in adult chimpanzee positional behavior: The influence of body size on locomotion and posture. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 91, 99–115. Ecuyer-Dab, I., & Robert, M. (2004). Have sex differences in spatial ability evolved from male competition for mating and female concern for survival? Cognition, 91, 221–257. Fitzgibbon, C. D. (1990). Anti-predator strategies of immature Thomson’s gazelles: Hiding and the prone response. Animal Behaviour, 40, 846–855. Fjørtoft I. (2001). The natural environment as a playground for children: The impact of outdoor play activities in pre-primary school children. Early Childhood Education Journal, 29, 111-119. Gaines, S. K., & Leary, J. M. (2004). Public health emergency preparedness in the setting of child care. Family & Community Health, 27, 260-265. Gibson, J. J. (1986). The ecological approach to visual perception. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. (Original work published 1979). Isbell, L. A. (1994). Predation on primates: Ecological patterns and evolutionary consequences. Evolutionary Anthropology, 3, 61-71. Koops, K., McGrew, W. C., & Vries, H., & Tetsuro Matsuzawa, T. (2012). Nest-building by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) at Seringbara, Nimba mountains: Antipredation, thermoregulation, and antivector hypotheses. International Journal of Primatology, 33, 356–380. Kraft, T. S., Venkataraman, V. V., & Dominy, N. J. (2014). A natural history of human tree climbing. Journal of Human Evolution, 71, 105-118. Lahti, D. C., Johnson, N. A., Ajie, B. C., Otto, S. P., Hendry, A. P., Blumstein, D. T., Coss, R. G., Donohue, K., & Foster, S. A. (2009). Relaxed selection in the wild: Contexts and consequences. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 24, 487-496. Leakey, M. G., Feibel, C. S., McDougall, I., & Walker, A. (1995). New four-million-year-old hominid species from Kanapoi and Allia Bay, Kenya. Nature (London), 376, 565–571. Micheletta, J., Waller, B. M., Panggur, M. R., Neumann, C., Duboscq, J., Agil, M., & Engelhardt, A. (2012). Social bonds affect anti-predator behavior in a tolerant species of macaque, Macaca nigra. Proceedings of the Royal Society Series B. doi:10.1098/rspb.2012.1470. Nigg, B.M., Fisher,V., Allinger, T. L., Ronsky, J. R.,& Engsberg, J. R. (1992). Range of motion of the foot as a function of age. Foot and Ankle, 13, 336–343. Penkunas, M. J., & Coss, R. G. (2013a). Rapid detection of visually provocative animals by preschool children and adults. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 114, 527-536. Penkunas, M. J., and Coss, R. G. (2013b). A comparison of rural and urban Indian children’s visual detection of threatening and nonthreatening animals. Developmental Science, 16, 463-475. DOI: 10.1111/desc.12043. Penkunas, M. J., Coss, R. G., & Shultz, S. (2014). Risk assessment by British children and adults. International Journal of Psychological Studies, 6, 32-43. Pickford, M., & Senut, B. (2001). The geological and faunal context of Late Miocene hominid remains from Lukeino, Kenya. Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences IIa: Earth and Planetary Science, 332, 145–152. Plavcan, J. M., Lockwood, C. A., Kimbel, W. H., Lague, M. R., & Harmon, E. H. (2005). Sexual dimorphism in Australopithecus afarensis revisited: How strong is the case for a human-like pattern of dimorphism? Journal of Human Evolution, 48, 313-320. Postma, A., Jager, G., Kessels, R. P. C., Koppeschaar, H. P. F., & van Honk, J. (2004). Sex differences for selective forms of spatial memory. Brain and Cognition, 54, 24–34. Pruetz, J. D., Fulton, S. J., Marchant, L. F., McGrew, W. C., Schiel, M., & Waller M. (2008). Arboreal nesting as anti-predator adaptation by savanna chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in southeastern Senegal American Journal of Primatology, 70, 393–401. Qvindesland, A., & Jónsson, H. (1999). Articular hypermobility in Icelandic 12-year-olds. Rheumatology, 38, 1014-1016. Ramakrishnan, U., & Coss, R. G. (2001a). Strategies used by Bonnet Macaques (Macaca radiata) to reduce predation risk while sleeping. Primates, 42, 193-206. Ramakrishnan, U., & Coss, R. G. (2001b). A comparison of the sleeping behavior of three sympatric primates: A preliminary report. Folia Primatologica, 72, 51-53. Russell, J. A., Shave, R. M., Kruse, D. W. Koutedakis, Y., & Wyon, M. A. (2011). Ankle and foot contributions to extreme plantar- and dorsiflexion in female ballet dancers. Foot & Ankle International, 32, 183-188. Sandstrom, N. J., Kaufman, J., & Huettel, S. A. (1998). Males and females use different distal cues in a virtual environment navigation task. Cognitive Brain Research, 6, 351–360. Silverman, I., & Choi, J. (2007). The hunter-gatherer theory of sex differences in spatial abilities: Data from 40 countries. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 36, 261-268. Spiteri, R. (2010). Escaped animal scares family. Niagara Falls Review, July 26. http://www.niagarafallsreview.ca/2010/07/26/escaped-animal-scares-family. Stankowich, T., & Coss, R. G. (2007). The re-emergence of felid camouflage with the decay of predator recognition in deer under relaxed selection. Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series B, 274, 175-182. Stern, J. T., Jr., & Susman, R. L. (1983). The locomotor anatomy of Australopithecus afarensis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 60, 279–317. Susman, R. L., Stern, J. T., Jr., & Jungers, W. L. (1984). Arboreality and bipedality in the Hadar hominids. Folia Primatologica, 43, 113–156. Treves A., & Naughton-Treves, L. (1999). Risk and opportunity for humans coexisting with large carnivores. Journal of Human Evolution, 36, 275–282. Treves, A., & Palmqvist, P. (2007). Reconstructing Hominin Interactions with Mammalian Carnivores (6.0–1.8 Ma). In S. Gursky-Doyen, & K. A. I. Nekaris (Eds.), Primate anti-predator strategies (355-381). New York: Springer Science & Business Media LLC. Tromborg, C. T., & Coss, R. G. (2015). Isolation rearing reveals latent antisnake behavior in California ground squirrels (Otospermophilus becheeyi) searching for predatory threats. Animal Cognition, 18, 855-865. Villmoare, B., Kimbel, W. H., Seyoum, C., Campisano, C. J., DiMaggio, E. N., Rowan, J., Braun, D. R., Arrowsmith, J. R., & Reed, K. E. (2012). Early Homo at 2.8 Ma from Ledi-Geraru, Afar, Ethiopia. Science, 347, 1352-1354.
dc.rights.eng.fl_str_mv International Journal of Psychological Research - 2016
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spelling Coss, Richard G.2016-07-01T00:00:00Z2025-07-31T16:11:50Z2016-07-01T00:00:00Z2025-07-31T16:11:50Z2016-07-01The current study of preschool children characterizes a semi-natural extension of experimental questions on how human ancestors evaded predation when encountering dangerous felids.  In a pretend game on a playground, we presented full-size leopard and deer models to children (N = 39) in a repeated-measures experimental design.  Prior to viewing the model presented 15-m away, each child was instructed by the experimenter to go where she or he would feel safe.  The rationale for this study was based on the anthropological construct of “sexual dinichism,” positing that, during the Pliocene, smaller-bodied hominin females engaged in more arboreal behavior than larger-bodied males. Consistent with this construct, our previous simulation research using images of an African rock outcrop showed that, after viewing a lion, girls preferred a tree as refuge rather than a crevice or large boulder whereas boys did not differentiate these refuge sites.  In this follow-up study, we predicted that, after viewing the model leopard, the preschool girls would differ from the boys by not choosing enclosed refuge sites analogous to the crevice.  Analyses of a contingency table for the leopard model supported this hypothesis by yielding a significant interaction of sex and refuge location (p = .031, d = .76), the source of which was a reliably larger percentage of girls not choosing concealed refuge (p = .005, d = 2.3).  The interaction of sex and refuge location for the model deer was not significant (p > .5).  Our findings suggest that, in contrast to the deer, the girls selected exposed playground refuge sites rather than concealing ones to maintain visual contact with the leopard as a contingency for future action.application/pdfapplication/msword10.21500/20112084.23252011-79222011-2084https://hdl.handle.net/10819/25780https://doi.org/10.21500/20112084.2325engUniversidad San Buenaventura - USB (Colombia)https://revistas.usb.edu.co/index.php/IJPR/article/download/2325/2374https://revistas.usb.edu.co/index.php/IJPR/article/download/2325/3048Núm. 2 , Año 2016 : Special Issue of Comparative Psychology19289International Journal of Psychological ResearchAgresti, A. (2002). Categorical data analysis. Second Edition. New York: Wiley. Barrett, H. C. (2005). Adaptations to predators and prey. In D. Buss (Ed.), The handbook of evolutionary psychology (200–223). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Black, J. E., & Greenough, W. T. (1986). Induction of pattern in neural structure by experience: implications for cognitive development (1–50). In M. E. Lamb, A. L., Brown & B. Rogoff B (Eds.) Advances in developmental psychology, Vol 4. New Jersey: ErlbaumHillsdale. Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss. Vol. 1. Attachment. Second edition. New York: Basic Books. Brain, C. K. (1970). New finds at the Swartkrans australopithecine site. Nature (London), 225, 1112–1119. Busse, C. (1980). Leopard and lion predation upon chacma baboons living in the Moremi Wildlife Reserve. Botswana Notes & Records, 12, 15–21. Caro, T. M. (1986). The functions of stotting in Thomson’s gazelles: Some tests of the predictions. Animal Behaviour, 34, 663–684. Cosco, N. G., Moore, R. C., & Islam, M. Z.. (2010). Behavior mapping: A method for linking preschool physical activity and outdoor design. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 42, 513-519. Coss, R. G. (1991a). Context and animal behavior: 3. The relationship between early development and evolutionary persistence of ground squirrel antisnake behavior. Ecological Psychology, 3, 277–315. Coss, R. G. (1991b). Evolutionary persistence of memory-like processes. Concepts in Neuroscience, 2, 129–168. Coss, R. G., & Charles, E. P. (2004). The role of evolutionary hypotheses in psychological research: Instincts, affordances, and relic sex differences. Ecological Psychology, 16, 199-236. Coss, R. G., Fitzhugh, E. L., Schmid-Holmes, S., Kenyon, M. W., & Etling, K. (2009). The effects of human age, group composition, and behavior on the likelihood of being injured by attacking pumas. Anthrozoös, 22, 77-87. Coss, R. G., & Goldthwaite, R. O. (1995). The persistence of old designs for perception. In N. S. Thompson (Ed.), Perspectives in ethology, Vol. 11. Behavioral design (83–148). New York: Plenum. Coss, R. G., & Ramakrishnan, U. (2000). Perceptual aspects of leopard recognition by wild bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata). Behaviour, 137, 315–335. Dabbs, J. M. Jr., Chang, E-L., Strong, R. A., & Milun, R. (1998). Spatial ability, navigation strategy, and geographic knowledge among men and women. Evolution and Human Behavior, 19, 89–98. Doran, D. M. (1993). Sex differences in adult chimpanzee positional behavior: The influence of body size on locomotion and posture. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 91, 99–115. Ecuyer-Dab, I., & Robert, M. (2004). Have sex differences in spatial ability evolved from male competition for mating and female concern for survival? Cognition, 91, 221–257. Fitzgibbon, C. D. (1990). Anti-predator strategies of immature Thomson’s gazelles: Hiding and the prone response. Animal Behaviour, 40, 846–855. Fjørtoft I. (2001). The natural environment as a playground for children: The impact of outdoor play activities in pre-primary school children. Early Childhood Education Journal, 29, 111-119. Gaines, S. K., & Leary, J. M. (2004). Public health emergency preparedness in the setting of child care. Family & Community Health, 27, 260-265. Gibson, J. J. (1986). The ecological approach to visual perception. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. (Original work published 1979). Isbell, L. A. (1994). Predation on primates: Ecological patterns and evolutionary consequences. Evolutionary Anthropology, 3, 61-71. Koops, K., McGrew, W. C., & Vries, H., & Tetsuro Matsuzawa, T. (2012). Nest-building by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) at Seringbara, Nimba mountains: Antipredation, thermoregulation, and antivector hypotheses. International Journal of Primatology, 33, 356–380. Kraft, T. S., Venkataraman, V. V., & Dominy, N. J. (2014). A natural history of human tree climbing. Journal of Human Evolution, 71, 105-118. Lahti, D. C., Johnson, N. A., Ajie, B. C., Otto, S. P., Hendry, A. P., Blumstein, D. T., Coss, R. G., Donohue, K., & Foster, S. A. (2009). Relaxed selection in the wild: Contexts and consequences. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 24, 487-496. Leakey, M. G., Feibel, C. S., McDougall, I., & Walker, A. (1995). New four-million-year-old hominid species from Kanapoi and Allia Bay, Kenya. Nature (London), 376, 565–571. Micheletta, J., Waller, B. M., Panggur, M. R., Neumann, C., Duboscq, J., Agil, M., & Engelhardt, A. (2012). Social bonds affect anti-predator behavior in a tolerant species of macaque, Macaca nigra. Proceedings of the Royal Society Series B. doi:10.1098/rspb.2012.1470. Nigg, B.M., Fisher,V., Allinger, T. L., Ronsky, J. R.,& Engsberg, J. R. (1992). Range of motion of the foot as a function of age. Foot and Ankle, 13, 336–343. Penkunas, M. J., & Coss, R. G. (2013a). Rapid detection of visually provocative animals by preschool children and adults. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 114, 527-536. Penkunas, M. J., and Coss, R. G. (2013b). A comparison of rural and urban Indian children’s visual detection of threatening and nonthreatening animals. Developmental Science, 16, 463-475. DOI: 10.1111/desc.12043. Penkunas, M. J., Coss, R. G., & Shultz, S. (2014). Risk assessment by British children and adults. International Journal of Psychological Studies, 6, 32-43. Pickford, M., & Senut, B. (2001). The geological and faunal context of Late Miocene hominid remains from Lukeino, Kenya. Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences IIa: Earth and Planetary Science, 332, 145–152. Plavcan, J. M., Lockwood, C. A., Kimbel, W. H., Lague, M. R., & Harmon, E. H. (2005). Sexual dimorphism in Australopithecus afarensis revisited: How strong is the case for a human-like pattern of dimorphism? Journal of Human Evolution, 48, 313-320. Postma, A., Jager, G., Kessels, R. P. C., Koppeschaar, H. P. F., & van Honk, J. (2004). Sex differences for selective forms of spatial memory. Brain and Cognition, 54, 24–34. Pruetz, J. D., Fulton, S. J., Marchant, L. F., McGrew, W. C., Schiel, M., & Waller M. (2008). Arboreal nesting as anti-predator adaptation by savanna chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in southeastern Senegal American Journal of Primatology, 70, 393–401. Qvindesland, A., & Jónsson, H. (1999). Articular hypermobility in Icelandic 12-year-olds. Rheumatology, 38, 1014-1016. Ramakrishnan, U., & Coss, R. G. (2001a). Strategies used by Bonnet Macaques (Macaca radiata) to reduce predation risk while sleeping. Primates, 42, 193-206. Ramakrishnan, U., & Coss, R. G. (2001b). A comparison of the sleeping behavior of three sympatric primates: A preliminary report. Folia Primatologica, 72, 51-53. Russell, J. A., Shave, R. M., Kruse, D. W. Koutedakis, Y., & Wyon, M. A. (2011). Ankle and foot contributions to extreme plantar- and dorsiflexion in female ballet dancers. Foot & Ankle International, 32, 183-188. Sandstrom, N. J., Kaufman, J., & Huettel, S. A. (1998). Males and females use different distal cues in a virtual environment navigation task. Cognitive Brain Research, 6, 351–360. Silverman, I., & Choi, J. (2007). The hunter-gatherer theory of sex differences in spatial abilities: Data from 40 countries. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 36, 261-268. Spiteri, R. (2010). Escaped animal scares family. Niagara Falls Review, July 26. http://www.niagarafallsreview.ca/2010/07/26/escaped-animal-scares-family. Stankowich, T., & Coss, R. G. (2007). The re-emergence of felid camouflage with the decay of predator recognition in deer under relaxed selection. Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series B, 274, 175-182. Stern, J. T., Jr., & Susman, R. L. (1983). The locomotor anatomy of Australopithecus afarensis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 60, 279–317. 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Science, 347, 1352-1354.International Journal of Psychological Research - 2016info:eu-repo/semantics/openAccesshttp://purl.org/coar/access_right/c_abf2https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/https://revistas.usb.edu.co/index.php/IJPR/article/view/2325preschool childrenantipredator simulationleopard recognitionrefuge choiceantipredator behaviorSex difference in choice of concealed or exposed refuge sites by preschool children viewing a model leopard in a playground simulation of antipredator behaviorSex difference in choice of concealed or exposed refuge sites by preschool children viewing a model leopard in a playground simulation of antipredator behaviorArtículo de revistahttp://purl.org/coar/resource_type/c_6501http://purl.org/coar/resource_type/c_2df8fbb1http://purl.org/coar/version/c_970fb48d4fbd8a85Textinfo:eu-repo/semantics/articleJournal articleinfo:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersionPublicationOREORE.xmltext/xml2697https://bibliotecadigital.usb.edu.co/bitstreams/62a791df-591e-4b38-9dba-be4f7eb6f1eb/download0447c1f61984d3d3d64b3fb01899f8e7MD5110819/25780oai:bibliotecadigital.usb.edu.co:10819/257802025-07-31 11:11:50.412https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/https://bibliotecadigital.usb.edu.coRepositorio Institucional Universidad de San Buenaventura Colombiabdigital@metabiblioteca.com

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