Sexual abuse Vs. Sexual freedom A legal approach to the age of sexual consent in adolescents in spanish-speaking countries

Child and adolescent sexual abuse (CSA) is an international public health problem. Despite the importance of CSA, there is no consensus definition, and the lack of consensus is related to difficulties in conducting prevalence studies as well as research in other areas. To establish a consensual defi...

Full description

Autores:
Parra Barrera, Sandra
Sánchez-Fuentes, María del Mar
FUERTES IGLESIAS, CARLOS
Boldova Pasamar, Miguel Ángel
Tipo de recurso:
Article of journal
Fecha de publicación:
2021
Institución:
Corporación Universidad de la Costa
Repositorio:
REDICUC - Repositorio CUC
Idioma:
eng
OAI Identifier:
oai:repositorio.cuc.edu.co:11323/8802
Acceso en línea:
https://hdl.handle.net/11323/8802
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910460
https://repositorio.cuc.edu.co/
Palabra clave:
Child sexual abuse
Age of sexual consent
Romeo and Juliet clause
Sexual freedom
Sexual indemnity
Comparative law
Rights
openAccess
License
CC0 1.0 Universal
id RCUC2_9ededfb9142be2515a1889bb21302f55
oai_identifier_str oai:repositorio.cuc.edu.co:11323/8802
network_acronym_str RCUC2
network_name_str REDICUC - Repositorio CUC
repository_id_str
dc.title.spa.fl_str_mv Sexual abuse Vs. Sexual freedom A legal approach to the age of sexual consent in adolescents in spanish-speaking countries
title Sexual abuse Vs. Sexual freedom A legal approach to the age of sexual consent in adolescents in spanish-speaking countries
spellingShingle Sexual abuse Vs. Sexual freedom A legal approach to the age of sexual consent in adolescents in spanish-speaking countries
Child sexual abuse
Age of sexual consent
Romeo and Juliet clause
Sexual freedom
Sexual indemnity
Comparative law
title_short Sexual abuse Vs. Sexual freedom A legal approach to the age of sexual consent in adolescents in spanish-speaking countries
title_full Sexual abuse Vs. Sexual freedom A legal approach to the age of sexual consent in adolescents in spanish-speaking countries
title_fullStr Sexual abuse Vs. Sexual freedom A legal approach to the age of sexual consent in adolescents in spanish-speaking countries
title_full_unstemmed Sexual abuse Vs. Sexual freedom A legal approach to the age of sexual consent in adolescents in spanish-speaking countries
title_sort Sexual abuse Vs. Sexual freedom A legal approach to the age of sexual consent in adolescents in spanish-speaking countries
dc.creator.fl_str_mv Parra Barrera, Sandra
Sánchez-Fuentes, María del Mar
FUERTES IGLESIAS, CARLOS
Boldova Pasamar, Miguel Ángel
dc.contributor.author.spa.fl_str_mv Parra Barrera, Sandra
Sánchez-Fuentes, María del Mar
FUERTES IGLESIAS, CARLOS
Boldova Pasamar, Miguel Ángel
dc.subject.spa.fl_str_mv Child sexual abuse
Age of sexual consent
Romeo and Juliet clause
Sexual freedom
Sexual indemnity
Comparative law
topic Child sexual abuse
Age of sexual consent
Romeo and Juliet clause
Sexual freedom
Sexual indemnity
Comparative law
description Child and adolescent sexual abuse (CSA) is an international public health problem. Despite the importance of CSA, there is no consensus definition, and the lack of consensus is related to difficulties in conducting prevalence studies as well as research in other areas. To establish a consensual definition, legal aspects such as the age of sexual consent and the difference in age or power between victim and aggressor as well as aspects related to sexual freedom and sexual indemnity must be considered. Therefore, the main goal of this research was to analyze the age of sexual consent in the legal systems of Spanish-speaking countries and to examine whether the Romeo and Juliet clause is established. To achieve the proposed aims, we employed the legal interpretation method, and we analyzed the current Criminal Codes of the 21 Spanish-speaking countries. From the results, it is found that the age of sexual consent varies between countries, establishing valid sexual consent between 13 and 18 years. In addition, only six countries have the Romeo and Juliet clause that protects sexual freedom in adolescents. Finally, we discussed the lack of consensus on the age of sexual consent and the limitations presented by the Romeo and Juliet clause.
publishDate 2021
dc.date.accessioned.none.fl_str_mv 2021-10-22T20:18:33Z
dc.date.available.none.fl_str_mv 2021-10-22T20:18:33Z
dc.date.issued.none.fl_str_mv 2021
dc.type.spa.fl_str_mv Artículo de revista
dc.type.coar.fl_str_mv http://purl.org/coar/resource_type/c_2df8fbb1
dc.type.coar.spa.fl_str_mv http://purl.org/coar/resource_type/c_6501
dc.type.content.spa.fl_str_mv Text
dc.type.driver.spa.fl_str_mv info:eu-repo/semantics/article
dc.type.redcol.spa.fl_str_mv http://purl.org/redcol/resource_type/ART
dc.type.version.spa.fl_str_mv info:eu-repo/semantics/acceptedVersion
format http://purl.org/coar/resource_type/c_6501
status_str acceptedVersion
dc.identifier.issn.spa.fl_str_mv 1660-4601
1661-7827
dc.identifier.uri.spa.fl_str_mv https://hdl.handle.net/11323/8802
dc.identifier.doi.spa.fl_str_mv https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910460
dc.identifier.instname.spa.fl_str_mv Corporación Universidad de la Costa
dc.identifier.reponame.spa.fl_str_mv REDICUC - Repositorio CUC
dc.identifier.repourl.spa.fl_str_mv https://repositorio.cuc.edu.co/
identifier_str_mv 1660-4601
1661-7827
Corporación Universidad de la Costa
REDICUC - Repositorio CUC
url https://hdl.handle.net/11323/8802
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910460
https://repositorio.cuc.edu.co/
dc.language.iso.none.fl_str_mv eng
language eng
dc.relation.references.spa.fl_str_mv 1. Dubowitz, H. Child sexual abuse and exploitation—A global glimpse. Child Abus. Negl. 2017, 66, 2–8.
2. Letourneau, E.J.; Eaton, W.W.; Bass, J.; Berlin, F.S.; Moore, S.G. The Need for a Comprehensive Public Health Approach to Preventing Child Sexual Abuse. Public Health Rep. 2014, 129, 222–228.
3. Stoltenborgh, M.; Van Ijzendoorn, M.H.; Euser, E.M.; Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J. A Global Perspective on Child Sexual Abuse: Meta-Analysis of Prevalence Around the World. Child Maltreatment 2011, 16, 79–101.
4. Hailes, H.P.; Yu, R.; Danese, A.; Fazel, S. Long-term outcomes of childhood sexual abuse: An umbrella review. Lancet Psychiatry 2019, 6, 830–839.
5. Myhre, A.K.; Adams, J.A.; Kaufhold, M.; Davis, J.L.; Suresh, P.; Kuelbs, C.L. Anal findings in children with and without probable anal penetration: A retrospective study of 1115 children referred for suspected sexual abuse. Child Abuse Negl. 2013, 37, 465– 474.
6. Abajobir, A.A.; Kisely, S.; Maravilla, J.C.; Williams, G.; Najman, J.M. Gender differences in the association between childhood sexual abuse and risky sexual behaviours: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Child Abuse Negl. 2017,63, 249-260.
7. Li, M.; D’Arcy, C.; Meng, X. Maltreatment in childhood substantially increases the risk of adult depression and anxiety in prospective cohort studies: Systematic review, meta-analysis, and proportional attributable fractions. Psychol. Med. 2016, 46, 717– 730.
8. Richter, L.M.; Mathews, S.; Nonterah, E.; Masilela, L. A longitudinal perspective on boys as victims of childhood sexual abuse in South Africa: Consequences for adult mental health. Child Abuse Negl. 2018, 84, 1–10.
9. Morais, H.B.; Alexander, A.A.; Fix, R.L.; Burkhart, B.R. Childhood Sexual Abuse in Adolescents Adjudicated for Sexual Offenses: Mental Health Consequences and Sexual Offending Behaviors. Sex. Abuse 2018, 30, 23–42.
10. Kaplow, J.B.; Hall, E.; Koenen, K.C.; Dodge, K.A.; Amaya-Jackson, L. (2008). Dissociation predicts later attention problems in sexually abused children. Child Abuse Negl. 2008, 32, 261–275.
11. Ferrer, M.; Andión, Ó.; Calvo, N.; Ramos-Quiroga, J.A.; Prat, M.; Corrales, M.; Casas, M. Differences in the association between childhood trauma history and borderline personality disorder or attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder diagnoses in adulthood. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2017, 267, 541–549.
12. Varese, F.; Smeets, F.; Drukker, M.; Lieverse, R..; Lataster, T.; Viechtbauer, W.; Read, J.; van Os, J.; Bentall, R.P. Childhood adversities increase the risk of psychosis: A meta-analysis of patient-control, prospective-and cross-sectional cohort studies. Schizophr. Bull, 2012, 38, 661–671.
13. Goldman, J.D.G.; Padayachi, U.K. Some methodological problems in estimating incidence and prevalence in child sexual abuse Research. J. Sex Res. 2000, 37, 305–314.
14. Finkelhor, D.; Turner, H.A.; Shattuck, A.; Hamby, S.L. Prevalence of childhood exposure to violence, crime, and abuse: Results from the National Survey of Children’s Exposure to Violence. JAMA Pediatr. 2015, 169, 746-754.
15. Gray, S.; Rarick, S. Exploring gender and racial/ethnic differences in the effects of child sexual abuse. J. Child Sex. Abuse 2018, 27, 570–587.
16. Barth, J.; Bermetz, L.; Heim, E.; Trelle, S.; Tonia, T. The current prevalence of child sexual abuse worldwide: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int. J. Public Health 2013, 58, 469–483.
17. Thornton, C.P.; Veenema, T.G. Children seeking refuge: A review of the escalating humanitarian crisis of child sexual abuse and HIV/AIDS in Latin America. J. Assoc. Nurses AIDS Care 2015, 26, 432–442.
18. UNICEF. Hidden in plan sight. 2014. Available online: https://www.unicef.org/reports/hidden-plain-sight (accessed on 9 June 2021).
19. Veenema, T.G.; Thornton, C.P.; Corley, A. The public health crisis of child sexual abuse in low and middle income countries: An integrative review of the literature. Int. J. Nurs. Stud. 2015, 52, 864–881.
20. UNICEF. Boys and girls in Latin America and the Caribbean. Panorama 2018. 2018. Available online: https://www.unicef.org/lac/media/4926/file (accessed on 9 June 2021).
21. Leeb, R.; Paulozzi, L.; Melanson, C.; Simon, T.; Arias, I. Child Maltreatment Surveillance: Uniform Definitions for Public Health and Recommended Data Elements. 2008. Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/cm_surveillance-a.pdf (accessed on 16 June 2021).
22. World Health Organization and International Society for Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect. Preventing child maltreatment: A guide to taking action and generating evidence. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO. 2006. Available online: http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/publications/violence/child_maltreatment/ (accessed on 11 June 2021).
23. Mathews, B.; Collin-Vézina, D. Child sexual abuse: Toward a conceptual model and definition. Trauma Violence Abuse, 2019, 20 131–148.
24. World Health Organization. Understand and address violence against women. Sexual violence. Pan American Health Organization, Washington DC. 2013. Available online: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/98821/WHO_RHR_12.37_spa.pdf?sequence=1 (accessed on 11 June 2021).
25. Pereda, N.; Forns, M. Prevalence and characteristics of child sexual abuse in Spanish university students. Abuso Infantil Negl. 2007, 31, 417–426.
26. Mohler-Kuo, M.; Landolt, MA; Maier, T.; Meidert, U.; Schönbucher, V.; Schnyder, U. Child sexual abuse revisitedA populationbased cross-sectional study among Swiss adolescents. J. Adolesc. Health 2014, 54, 304–311.
27. González-Agudelo, G. Young people’s sexuality: Criminalization and consent (article 183 quater of the Penal Code). Tirant lo Blanch: Spain, 2021; 1–156.
28. United Nations General Assembly. Convention on the Rights of the Child. United Nations, Treaty Series: New York, USA, 1989. Available online: https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=IND&mtdsg_no=IV-11&chapter=4&clang=_en (accessed on 15 June 2021).
29. European Parliament. European Charter of the Rights of the Child. 1992.
30. González-Aguedelo, G. The health and reproductive rights of minors within the framework of fundamental rights. Ius et Scientia, 2016, 2, 215–225.
31. European Parliament. Directive 2011/93 / EU of the European Parliament and of the Council, of December 13, 2011, on the fight against sexual abuse and sexual exploitation of minors and child pornography and replacing Framework Decision 2004/68/JAI of the Council. Available online: https://www.boe.es/doue/2011/335/L00001-00014.pdf (accessed on 15 June 2021).
32. World Association for Sexual Health. Declaration of sexual rights. 2014. Available online: https://worldsexualhealth.net/wpcontent/uploads/2013/08/Declaration-of-Sexual-Rights-2014-plain-text.pdf (accessed on 15 June 2021).
33. Cook, R.J.; Cusack, S.; Dickens, B.M. Unethical female stereotyping in reproductive health. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2010, 109, 255– 258.
34. Huffman, J.R; Huffman, J.L. Sexism and Cultural Lag: The rise of the jailbait song, 1955-1985. The Journal of Popular Culture, 1987, 21, 65–83.
35. Monge-Fernández, A. Abuses and sexual aggressions to under thirteen-year-old’s after the criminal law amendment of 2010. Revista de Derecho Penal y Ciencias Penales, 2010, 15, 85–103.
36. Orts-Berenguer, E.; Alonso-Rimo, A. Introduction to the study of sexual crimes against minors, In Sexual crimes against minors: Psychological, legal and police approach.; Lameiras Fernández, M., Orts Berenguer, E., Edts.; Tirant Criminología y Educación Social, Valencia, Spain, 2014; pp.27–37.
37. Lameiras-Fernández, M.; Carrera-Fernández, M.V.; Rodríguez-Castro, Y.; Alonso-Álvarez, A. Psychological approach to the problem of sexual abuse in childhood. In Sexual crimes against minors: Psychological, legal and police approach.; Lameiras Fernández, M., Orts Berenguer,E., Edts.; Tirant Criminología y Educación Social, Valencia, Spain, 2014; pp.39–67.
38. Feteris, E.T. Legal Argumentation and Legal Interpretation. In Fundamentals of Legal Argumentation; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2017; pp. 1–21.
39. Law 25087, from April 14 1999, Criminal Code. National Bulletin. Available online: https://www.argentina.gob.ar/normativa/nacional/ley-25087-57556/texto (accessed on 16 June 2021).
40. Law 2023, from October 29 1999, for the protection of victims of crimes against sexual freedom and that modifies the Penal Code. Available online: https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/WEBTEXT/59479/68751/S99BOL02.htm (accessed on 16 June 2021).
41. Law 19.617, from July 12 1999, Law on Sexual Offenses, which modifies the Criminal Code, the Code of Criminal Procedure, the Law on Alternative Measures to Privative Sentences (No. 18,216) and the Decree Law on Conditional Release (No. 321). Available online: https://www.bcn.cl/leychile/navegar?idNorma=138814 (accessed on 16 June 2021).
42. Law 1236, from July 23rd 2008, by means of which some articles of the Criminal Code related to crimes of violence are modified. Available online: http://www.oas.org/dil/esp/Law_1236_de_2008_Colombia.pdf (accessed on 16 June 2021).
43. Law 9406, from January 13 2017, Improper Relations Law that modifies the Criminal Code, the Criminal Procedure Code and other legal bodies in matters relating to the crime of rape. Available online: http://www.pgrweb.go.cr/scij/Busqueda/Normativa/Normas/nrm_texto_completo.aspx?param1=NRTC&nValor1=1&nValor2=83353&nValor3=106995&strTipM=TC (accessed on 16 June 2021).
44. Law 87, from February 16 1999, Amending Law of the Criminal Code. Available online: http://perso.unifr.ch/derechopenal/assets/files/legislacion/l_20080616_25.pdf (accessed on 16 June 2021).
45. Law 2497, from January 27 1997, Law No. 24-97 that introduces modifications to the Penal Code, the Code of Criminal Procedure and the Code for the Protection of Boys, Girls and Adolescents. Available online: https://oig.cepal.org/sites/default/files/1997_dom_24-97.pdf (accessed on 16 June 2021).
46. Law 180, from February 10 2014, Comprehensive Organic Criminal Code. Available online: https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CEDAW/Shared%20Documents/ECU/INT_CEDAW_ARL_ECU_18950_S.pdf (accessed on 16 June 2021).
47. Law 3, from April 8 1967, Law on the modification of certain articles of the Penal Code and the Law of Criminal Procedure. Available online: http://cesge.org/index.php/leyes/category/3-penales-derechos-y-libertades (accessed on 16 June 2021).
48. Law 210, Decree 210 reforms the Criminal Code. Available online: https://oig.cepal.org/sites/default/files/2003_slv_dl210.pdf (accessed on 16 June 2021).
49. Law 9-2009, from February 2009, Law Against Sexual Violence, Exploitation and Trafficking in Persons. Available online: http://observatorio.mp.gob.gt/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/ley-contra-la-violencia-sexual-explotacion-y-trata-depersonas_-_decreto_9-2009_-guatemala.pdf (accessed on 16 June 2021).
50. Law 234-2005, from September 28 2005, Decree that reforms the Penal Code regarding crimes of sexual violence. Available online: https://www.acnur.org/fileadmin/Documentos/BDL/2016/10619.pdf?file=fileadmin/Documentos/BDL/2016/10619#:~:text=Se%20declara%20punible%20toda%20discriminaci%C3%B3n,lesiva%20a%20la%20dignidad%20humana%E2%80%9D (accessed on 16 June 2021).
51. Federal Criminal Code. Available online: http://www.ordenjuridico.gob.mx/Documentos/Federal/pdf/wo83048.pdf (accessed on 16 June 2021).
52. Law 856, from September 25 2013, Law of Amendment to Article 46 and Addition to Articles 30, 31 and 32 of Law No. 779, Comprehensive Law Against Violence Against Women and Reforms to Law No. 641, “Criminal Code”. Available online: http://extwprlegs1.fao.org/docs/pdf/nic138539.pdf (accessed on 16 June 2021).
53. Law 21, from March 20 2018, Law that reforms articles of the Criminal Code. Available online: https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/ELECTRONIC/106790/131151/F-1290510704/LEY%2021%20PANAMA.pdf (accessed on 16 June 2021).
54. Law 6002, from December 18 2017, Law that modifies articles of the Criminal Code. Available online: https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/ELECTRONIC/106287/130320/F-346690646/LEY%206002%20PARAGUAY.pdf (accessed on 16 June 2021).
55. Law 31040, from August 29 2020, Law that modifies the Criminal Code and the Consumer Protection and Defense Code, regarding hoarding, speculation and adulteration. Available online: http://proyectozero24.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/LeyN%C2%B0-31040-Ley-que-Modifica-el-C%C3%B3digo-Penal-y-otros.pdf (accessed on 16 June 2021).
56. Law 34, from January 21 2018, Law to amend Articles 88 and 89 of Law No. 146 of 2012, Criminal Code of Puerto Rico. Available online: https://www.lexjuris.com/lexlex/Leyes2018/lexl2018034.htm (accessed on 16 June 2021).
57. Law 1/2015, from March 30 2015, Organic Law amending Organic Law 10/1995, of November 23, of the Criminal Code. Available online: https://www.boe.es/diario_boe/txt.php?id=BOE-A-2015-3439 (accessed on 16 June 2021).
58. Law 38668, from April 23 2007, Organic Law on the Right of Women to a Life Free of Violence. Available online: https://www.acnur.org/fileadmin/Documentos/BDL/2008/6604.pdf (accessed on 16 June 2021).
59. Law 19580, from December 22 2017, Criminal Code N ° 9155 Amended by Law N ° 19,580 of December 22, 2017 chapter IV - of carnal violence, corruption of minors, public outrage to modesty. Available online: https://www.impo.com.uy/bases/codigopenal/9155-1933 (accessed on 16 June 2021).
60. De La Mata Barranco, N.J. Tratamiento legal de la edad del menor en la tutela penal de su correcto proceso de formación sexual. RECPC, 2019, 21, 1–70.
61. González Agudelo, G. La regla de las equivalencias del art. 183 quater y el consentimiento, La sexualidad de los menores ¿en suspenso? Revista General de Derecho, 2020, 34, 1–46.
62. Bell, D.L.; Barbers, S. Samantha. Early Sexual Initiation Among Boys: What Should We Do? JAMA Pediatrics, 2019, 173, 522–523.
63. Criminal Code, from 28 March 1848, Criminal Code of Spain. Available online: https://www.boe.es/datos/pdfs/BOE/1848/4944/A00001-00003.pdf (accessed on 30 June 2021).
64. Organic Law 11/1999, from April 30 1999, Organic Law that reforms the Penal Code. Available online: https://www.refworld.org.es/pdfid/57f767ce7.pdf (accessed on 30 June 2021).
65. United Nations. Committee on the Rights of the Child. 2007.
66. International Youth Organization for Ibero-America. Ibero-American Convention on the Rights of Young People. International Treaty on Youth Rights. 2005. Available online: https://betaweboij.wpcomstaging.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Convenci%C3%B3n.pdf (accessed on 30 June 2021).
67. Byrne, R.W. Natural theories of mind: Evolution, development and simulation of everyday mindreading. Ed. Andrew Whiten. Oxford, UK: B. Blackwell, 1991.
68. Gómez Tomillo, M. Article 183 quater, In Practical comments on the Penal Code, Volume II. Crimes against people: Gómez Tomillo, M., Eds.; Aranzadi, Spain, 2015; pp.539–546.
dc.rights.spa.fl_str_mv CC0 1.0 Universal
dc.rights.uri.spa.fl_str_mv http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/
dc.rights.accessrights.spa.fl_str_mv info:eu-repo/semantics/openAccess
dc.rights.coar.spa.fl_str_mv http://purl.org/coar/access_right/c_abf2
rights_invalid_str_mv CC0 1.0 Universal
http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/
http://purl.org/coar/access_right/c_abf2
eu_rights_str_mv openAccess
dc.format.mimetype.spa.fl_str_mv application/pdf
dc.publisher.spa.fl_str_mv Corporación Universidad de la Costa
dc.source.spa.fl_str_mv International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
institution Corporación Universidad de la Costa
dc.source.url.spa.fl_str_mv https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/18/19/10460
bitstream.url.fl_str_mv https://repositorio.cuc.edu.co/bitstreams/cf4fb427-9081-4bef-a6e0-7570f0ea43b0/download
https://repositorio.cuc.edu.co/bitstreams/cef11d72-7070-421e-8687-478082278872/download
https://repositorio.cuc.edu.co/bitstreams/7d6994ad-8f3f-4eef-8d08-bb9298e0cb44/download
https://repositorio.cuc.edu.co/bitstreams/e3ed464b-3966-4c44-b6f4-2d8395b74c04/download
https://repositorio.cuc.edu.co/bitstreams/6d21fa57-75fa-43e2-84e9-ccb2d140fe3c/download
bitstream.checksum.fl_str_mv 709cf0470453681cca032b17fac5a081
42fd4ad1e89814f5e4a476b409eb708c
e30e9215131d99561d40d6b0abbe9bad
af4b5ebe394371886c17e47ae1173f3b
38c72c9dfa2338c1d6623f0eee54b7b0
bitstream.checksumAlgorithm.fl_str_mv MD5
MD5
MD5
MD5
MD5
repository.name.fl_str_mv Repositorio de la Universidad de la Costa CUC
repository.mail.fl_str_mv repdigital@cuc.edu.co
_version_ 1828166822188285952
spelling Parra Barrera, SandraSánchez-Fuentes, María del MarFUERTES IGLESIAS, CARLOSBoldova Pasamar, Miguel Ángel2021-10-22T20:18:33Z2021-10-22T20:18:33Z20211660-46011661-7827https://hdl.handle.net/11323/8802https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910460Corporación Universidad de la CostaREDICUC - Repositorio CUChttps://repositorio.cuc.edu.co/Child and adolescent sexual abuse (CSA) is an international public health problem. Despite the importance of CSA, there is no consensus definition, and the lack of consensus is related to difficulties in conducting prevalence studies as well as research in other areas. To establish a consensual definition, legal aspects such as the age of sexual consent and the difference in age or power between victim and aggressor as well as aspects related to sexual freedom and sexual indemnity must be considered. Therefore, the main goal of this research was to analyze the age of sexual consent in the legal systems of Spanish-speaking countries and to examine whether the Romeo and Juliet clause is established. To achieve the proposed aims, we employed the legal interpretation method, and we analyzed the current Criminal Codes of the 21 Spanish-speaking countries. From the results, it is found that the age of sexual consent varies between countries, establishing valid sexual consent between 13 and 18 years. In addition, only six countries have the Romeo and Juliet clause that protects sexual freedom in adolescents. Finally, we discussed the lack of consensus on the age of sexual consent and the limitations presented by the Romeo and Juliet clause.Parra Barrera, Sandra-will be generated-orcid-0000-0002-0056-4389-600Sánchez-Fuentes, María del Mar-will be generated-orcid-0000-0003-3657-4981-600FUERTES IGLESIAS, CARLOS-will be generated-orcid-0000-0002-0791-2390-600Boldova Pasamar, Miguel Ángel-will be generated-orcid-0000-0003-0930-5823-600application/pdfengCorporación Universidad de la CostaCC0 1.0 Universalhttp://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/info:eu-repo/semantics/openAccesshttp://purl.org/coar/access_right/c_abf2International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Healthhttps://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/18/19/10460Child sexual abuseAge of sexual consentRomeo and Juliet clauseSexual freedomSexual indemnityComparative lawSexual abuse Vs. Sexual freedom A legal approach to the age of sexual consent in adolescents in spanish-speaking countriesArtículo de revistahttp://purl.org/coar/resource_type/c_6501http://purl.org/coar/resource_type/c_2df8fbb1Textinfo:eu-repo/semantics/articlehttp://purl.org/redcol/resource_type/ARTinfo:eu-repo/semantics/acceptedVersion1. Dubowitz, H. Child sexual abuse and exploitation—A global glimpse. Child Abus. Negl. 2017, 66, 2–8.2. Letourneau, E.J.; Eaton, W.W.; Bass, J.; Berlin, F.S.; Moore, S.G. The Need for a Comprehensive Public Health Approach to Preventing Child Sexual Abuse. Public Health Rep. 2014, 129, 222–228.3. Stoltenborgh, M.; Van Ijzendoorn, M.H.; Euser, E.M.; Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J. A Global Perspective on Child Sexual Abuse: Meta-Analysis of Prevalence Around the World. Child Maltreatment 2011, 16, 79–101.4. Hailes, H.P.; Yu, R.; Danese, A.; Fazel, S. Long-term outcomes of childhood sexual abuse: An umbrella review. Lancet Psychiatry 2019, 6, 830–839.5. Myhre, A.K.; Adams, J.A.; Kaufhold, M.; Davis, J.L.; Suresh, P.; Kuelbs, C.L. Anal findings in children with and without probable anal penetration: A retrospective study of 1115 children referred for suspected sexual abuse. Child Abuse Negl. 2013, 37, 465– 474.6. Abajobir, A.A.; Kisely, S.; Maravilla, J.C.; Williams, G.; Najman, J.M. Gender differences in the association between childhood sexual abuse and risky sexual behaviours: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Child Abuse Negl. 2017,63, 249-260.7. Li, M.; D’Arcy, C.; Meng, X. Maltreatment in childhood substantially increases the risk of adult depression and anxiety in prospective cohort studies: Systematic review, meta-analysis, and proportional attributable fractions. Psychol. Med. 2016, 46, 717– 730.8. Richter, L.M.; Mathews, S.; Nonterah, E.; Masilela, L. A longitudinal perspective on boys as victims of childhood sexual abuse in South Africa: Consequences for adult mental health. Child Abuse Negl. 2018, 84, 1–10.9. Morais, H.B.; Alexander, A.A.; Fix, R.L.; Burkhart, B.R. Childhood Sexual Abuse in Adolescents Adjudicated for Sexual Offenses: Mental Health Consequences and Sexual Offending Behaviors. Sex. Abuse 2018, 30, 23–42.10. Kaplow, J.B.; Hall, E.; Koenen, K.C.; Dodge, K.A.; Amaya-Jackson, L. (2008). Dissociation predicts later attention problems in sexually abused children. Child Abuse Negl. 2008, 32, 261–275.11. Ferrer, M.; Andión, Ó.; Calvo, N.; Ramos-Quiroga, J.A.; Prat, M.; Corrales, M.; Casas, M. Differences in the association between childhood trauma history and borderline personality disorder or attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder diagnoses in adulthood. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2017, 267, 541–549.12. Varese, F.; Smeets, F.; Drukker, M.; Lieverse, R..; Lataster, T.; Viechtbauer, W.; Read, J.; van Os, J.; Bentall, R.P. Childhood adversities increase the risk of psychosis: A meta-analysis of patient-control, prospective-and cross-sectional cohort studies. Schizophr. Bull, 2012, 38, 661–671.13. Goldman, J.D.G.; Padayachi, U.K. Some methodological problems in estimating incidence and prevalence in child sexual abuse Research. J. Sex Res. 2000, 37, 305–314.14. Finkelhor, D.; Turner, H.A.; Shattuck, A.; Hamby, S.L. Prevalence of childhood exposure to violence, crime, and abuse: Results from the National Survey of Children’s Exposure to Violence. JAMA Pediatr. 2015, 169, 746-754.15. Gray, S.; Rarick, S. Exploring gender and racial/ethnic differences in the effects of child sexual abuse. J. Child Sex. Abuse 2018, 27, 570–587.16. Barth, J.; Bermetz, L.; Heim, E.; Trelle, S.; Tonia, T. The current prevalence of child sexual abuse worldwide: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int. J. Public Health 2013, 58, 469–483.17. Thornton, C.P.; Veenema, T.G. Children seeking refuge: A review of the escalating humanitarian crisis of child sexual abuse and HIV/AIDS in Latin America. J. Assoc. Nurses AIDS Care 2015, 26, 432–442.18. UNICEF. Hidden in plan sight. 2014. Available online: https://www.unicef.org/reports/hidden-plain-sight (accessed on 9 June 2021).19. Veenema, T.G.; Thornton, C.P.; Corley, A. The public health crisis of child sexual abuse in low and middle income countries: An integrative review of the literature. Int. J. Nurs. Stud. 2015, 52, 864–881.20. UNICEF. Boys and girls in Latin America and the Caribbean. Panorama 2018. 2018. Available online: https://www.unicef.org/lac/media/4926/file (accessed on 9 June 2021).21. Leeb, R.; Paulozzi, L.; Melanson, C.; Simon, T.; Arias, I. Child Maltreatment Surveillance: Uniform Definitions for Public Health and Recommended Data Elements. 2008. Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/cm_surveillance-a.pdf (accessed on 16 June 2021).22. World Health Organization and International Society for Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect. Preventing child maltreatment: A guide to taking action and generating evidence. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO. 2006. Available online: http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/publications/violence/child_maltreatment/ (accessed on 11 June 2021).23. Mathews, B.; Collin-Vézina, D. Child sexual abuse: Toward a conceptual model and definition. Trauma Violence Abuse, 2019, 20 131–148.24. World Health Organization. Understand and address violence against women. Sexual violence. Pan American Health Organization, Washington DC. 2013. Available online: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/98821/WHO_RHR_12.37_spa.pdf?sequence=1 (accessed on 11 June 2021).25. Pereda, N.; Forns, M. Prevalence and characteristics of child sexual abuse in Spanish university students. Abuso Infantil Negl. 2007, 31, 417–426.26. Mohler-Kuo, M.; Landolt, MA; Maier, T.; Meidert, U.; Schönbucher, V.; Schnyder, U. Child sexual abuse revisitedA populationbased cross-sectional study among Swiss adolescents. J. Adolesc. Health 2014, 54, 304–311.27. González-Agudelo, G. Young people’s sexuality: Criminalization and consent (article 183 quater of the Penal Code). Tirant lo Blanch: Spain, 2021; 1–156.28. United Nations General Assembly. Convention on the Rights of the Child. United Nations, Treaty Series: New York, USA, 1989. Available online: https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=IND&mtdsg_no=IV-11&chapter=4&clang=_en (accessed on 15 June 2021).29. European Parliament. European Charter of the Rights of the Child. 1992.30. González-Aguedelo, G. The health and reproductive rights of minors within the framework of fundamental rights. Ius et Scientia, 2016, 2, 215–225.31. European Parliament. Directive 2011/93 / EU of the European Parliament and of the Council, of December 13, 2011, on the fight against sexual abuse and sexual exploitation of minors and child pornography and replacing Framework Decision 2004/68/JAI of the Council. Available online: https://www.boe.es/doue/2011/335/L00001-00014.pdf (accessed on 15 June 2021).32. World Association for Sexual Health. Declaration of sexual rights. 2014. Available online: https://worldsexualhealth.net/wpcontent/uploads/2013/08/Declaration-of-Sexual-Rights-2014-plain-text.pdf (accessed on 15 June 2021).33. Cook, R.J.; Cusack, S.; Dickens, B.M. Unethical female stereotyping in reproductive health. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2010, 109, 255– 258.34. Huffman, J.R; Huffman, J.L. Sexism and Cultural Lag: The rise of the jailbait song, 1955-1985. The Journal of Popular Culture, 1987, 21, 65–83.35. Monge-Fernández, A. Abuses and sexual aggressions to under thirteen-year-old’s after the criminal law amendment of 2010. Revista de Derecho Penal y Ciencias Penales, 2010, 15, 85–103.36. Orts-Berenguer, E.; Alonso-Rimo, A. Introduction to the study of sexual crimes against minors, In Sexual crimes against minors: Psychological, legal and police approach.; Lameiras Fernández, M., Orts Berenguer, E., Edts.; Tirant Criminología y Educación Social, Valencia, Spain, 2014; pp.27–37.37. Lameiras-Fernández, M.; Carrera-Fernández, M.V.; Rodríguez-Castro, Y.; Alonso-Álvarez, A. Psychological approach to the problem of sexual abuse in childhood. In Sexual crimes against minors: Psychological, legal and police approach.; Lameiras Fernández, M., Orts Berenguer,E., Edts.; Tirant Criminología y Educación Social, Valencia, Spain, 2014; pp.39–67.38. Feteris, E.T. Legal Argumentation and Legal Interpretation. In Fundamentals of Legal Argumentation; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2017; pp. 1–21.39. Law 25087, from April 14 1999, Criminal Code. National Bulletin. Available online: https://www.argentina.gob.ar/normativa/nacional/ley-25087-57556/texto (accessed on 16 June 2021).40. Law 2023, from October 29 1999, for the protection of victims of crimes against sexual freedom and that modifies the Penal Code. Available online: https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/WEBTEXT/59479/68751/S99BOL02.htm (accessed on 16 June 2021).41. Law 19.617, from July 12 1999, Law on Sexual Offenses, which modifies the Criminal Code, the Code of Criminal Procedure, the Law on Alternative Measures to Privative Sentences (No. 18,216) and the Decree Law on Conditional Release (No. 321). Available online: https://www.bcn.cl/leychile/navegar?idNorma=138814 (accessed on 16 June 2021).42. Law 1236, from July 23rd 2008, by means of which some articles of the Criminal Code related to crimes of violence are modified. Available online: http://www.oas.org/dil/esp/Law_1236_de_2008_Colombia.pdf (accessed on 16 June 2021).43. Law 9406, from January 13 2017, Improper Relations Law that modifies the Criminal Code, the Criminal Procedure Code and other legal bodies in matters relating to the crime of rape. Available online: http://www.pgrweb.go.cr/scij/Busqueda/Normativa/Normas/nrm_texto_completo.aspx?param1=NRTC&nValor1=1&nValor2=83353&nValor3=106995&strTipM=TC (accessed on 16 June 2021).44. Law 87, from February 16 1999, Amending Law of the Criminal Code. Available online: http://perso.unifr.ch/derechopenal/assets/files/legislacion/l_20080616_25.pdf (accessed on 16 June 2021).45. Law 2497, from January 27 1997, Law No. 24-97 that introduces modifications to the Penal Code, the Code of Criminal Procedure and the Code for the Protection of Boys, Girls and Adolescents. Available online: https://oig.cepal.org/sites/default/files/1997_dom_24-97.pdf (accessed on 16 June 2021).46. Law 180, from February 10 2014, Comprehensive Organic Criminal Code. Available online: https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CEDAW/Shared%20Documents/ECU/INT_CEDAW_ARL_ECU_18950_S.pdf (accessed on 16 June 2021).47. Law 3, from April 8 1967, Law on the modification of certain articles of the Penal Code and the Law of Criminal Procedure. Available online: http://cesge.org/index.php/leyes/category/3-penales-derechos-y-libertades (accessed on 16 June 2021).48. Law 210, Decree 210 reforms the Criminal Code. Available online: https://oig.cepal.org/sites/default/files/2003_slv_dl210.pdf (accessed on 16 June 2021).49. Law 9-2009, from February 2009, Law Against Sexual Violence, Exploitation and Trafficking in Persons. Available online: http://observatorio.mp.gob.gt/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/ley-contra-la-violencia-sexual-explotacion-y-trata-depersonas_-_decreto_9-2009_-guatemala.pdf (accessed on 16 June 2021).50. Law 234-2005, from September 28 2005, Decree that reforms the Penal Code regarding crimes of sexual violence. Available online: https://www.acnur.org/fileadmin/Documentos/BDL/2016/10619.pdf?file=fileadmin/Documentos/BDL/2016/10619#:~:text=Se%20declara%20punible%20toda%20discriminaci%C3%B3n,lesiva%20a%20la%20dignidad%20humana%E2%80%9D (accessed on 16 June 2021).51. Federal Criminal Code. Available online: http://www.ordenjuridico.gob.mx/Documentos/Federal/pdf/wo83048.pdf (accessed on 16 June 2021).52. Law 856, from September 25 2013, Law of Amendment to Article 46 and Addition to Articles 30, 31 and 32 of Law No. 779, Comprehensive Law Against Violence Against Women and Reforms to Law No. 641, “Criminal Code”. Available online: http://extwprlegs1.fao.org/docs/pdf/nic138539.pdf (accessed on 16 June 2021).53. Law 21, from March 20 2018, Law that reforms articles of the Criminal Code. Available online: https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/ELECTRONIC/106790/131151/F-1290510704/LEY%2021%20PANAMA.pdf (accessed on 16 June 2021).54. Law 6002, from December 18 2017, Law that modifies articles of the Criminal Code. Available online: https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/ELECTRONIC/106287/130320/F-346690646/LEY%206002%20PARAGUAY.pdf (accessed on 16 June 2021).55. Law 31040, from August 29 2020, Law that modifies the Criminal Code and the Consumer Protection and Defense Code, regarding hoarding, speculation and adulteration. Available online: http://proyectozero24.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/LeyN%C2%B0-31040-Ley-que-Modifica-el-C%C3%B3digo-Penal-y-otros.pdf (accessed on 16 June 2021).56. Law 34, from January 21 2018, Law to amend Articles 88 and 89 of Law No. 146 of 2012, Criminal Code of Puerto Rico. Available online: https://www.lexjuris.com/lexlex/Leyes2018/lexl2018034.htm (accessed on 16 June 2021).57. Law 1/2015, from March 30 2015, Organic Law amending Organic Law 10/1995, of November 23, of the Criminal Code. Available online: https://www.boe.es/diario_boe/txt.php?id=BOE-A-2015-3439 (accessed on 16 June 2021).58. Law 38668, from April 23 2007, Organic Law on the Right of Women to a Life Free of Violence. Available online: https://www.acnur.org/fileadmin/Documentos/BDL/2008/6604.pdf (accessed on 16 June 2021).59. Law 19580, from December 22 2017, Criminal Code N ° 9155 Amended by Law N ° 19,580 of December 22, 2017 chapter IV - of carnal violence, corruption of minors, public outrage to modesty. Available online: https://www.impo.com.uy/bases/codigopenal/9155-1933 (accessed on 16 June 2021).60. De La Mata Barranco, N.J. Tratamiento legal de la edad del menor en la tutela penal de su correcto proceso de formación sexual. RECPC, 2019, 21, 1–70.61. González Agudelo, G. La regla de las equivalencias del art. 183 quater y el consentimiento, La sexualidad de los menores ¿en suspenso? Revista General de Derecho, 2020, 34, 1–46.62. Bell, D.L.; Barbers, S. Samantha. Early Sexual Initiation Among Boys: What Should We Do? JAMA Pediatrics, 2019, 173, 522–523.63. Criminal Code, from 28 March 1848, Criminal Code of Spain. Available online: https://www.boe.es/datos/pdfs/BOE/1848/4944/A00001-00003.pdf (accessed on 30 June 2021).64. Organic Law 11/1999, from April 30 1999, Organic Law that reforms the Penal Code. Available online: https://www.refworld.org.es/pdfid/57f767ce7.pdf (accessed on 30 June 2021).65. United Nations. Committee on the Rights of the Child. 2007.66. International Youth Organization for Ibero-America. Ibero-American Convention on the Rights of Young People. International Treaty on Youth Rights. 2005. Available online: https://betaweboij.wpcomstaging.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Convenci%C3%B3n.pdf (accessed on 30 June 2021).67. Byrne, R.W. Natural theories of mind: Evolution, development and simulation of everyday mindreading. Ed. Andrew Whiten. Oxford, UK: B. Blackwell, 1991.68. Gómez Tomillo, M. Article 183 quater, In Practical comments on the Penal Code, Volume II. Crimes against people: Gómez Tomillo, M., Eds.; Aranzadi, Spain, 2015; pp.539–546.PublicationORIGINALSexual abuse vs. Sexual freedom A legal approach to the age of sexual consent in adolescents in spanish-speaking countries.pdfSexual abuse vs. Sexual freedom A legal approach to the age of sexual consent in adolescents in spanish-speaking countries.pdfapplication/pdf379309https://repositorio.cuc.edu.co/bitstreams/cf4fb427-9081-4bef-a6e0-7570f0ea43b0/download709cf0470453681cca032b17fac5a081MD51CC-LICENSElicense_rdflicense_rdfapplication/rdf+xml; charset=utf-8701https://repositorio.cuc.edu.co/bitstreams/cef11d72-7070-421e-8687-478082278872/download42fd4ad1e89814f5e4a476b409eb708cMD52LICENSElicense.txtlicense.txttext/plain; charset=utf-83196https://repositorio.cuc.edu.co/bitstreams/7d6994ad-8f3f-4eef-8d08-bb9298e0cb44/downloade30e9215131d99561d40d6b0abbe9badMD53THUMBNAILSexual abuse vs. Sexual freedom A legal approach to the age of sexual consent in adolescents in spanish-speaking countries.pdf.jpgSexual abuse vs. Sexual freedom A legal approach to the age of sexual consent in adolescents in spanish-speaking countries.pdf.jpgimage/jpeg72026https://repositorio.cuc.edu.co/bitstreams/e3ed464b-3966-4c44-b6f4-2d8395b74c04/downloadaf4b5ebe394371886c17e47ae1173f3bMD54TEXTSexual abuse vs. Sexual freedom A legal approach to the age of sexual consent in adolescents in spanish-speaking countries.pdf.txtSexual abuse vs. Sexual freedom A legal approach to the age of sexual consent in adolescents in spanish-speaking countries.pdf.txttext/plain44858https://repositorio.cuc.edu.co/bitstreams/6d21fa57-75fa-43e2-84e9-ccb2d140fe3c/download38c72c9dfa2338c1d6623f0eee54b7b0MD5511323/8802oai:repositorio.cuc.edu.co:11323/88022024-09-17 14:14:10.533http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/CC0 1.0 Universalopen.accesshttps://repositorio.cuc.edu.coRepositorio de la Universidad de la Costa CUCrepdigital@cuc.edu.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

Publicaciones similares